Ethics From Immanuel Kant And John Stuart Mill

Ethics From Im piece of musicuel Kant And washbasin Stuart valetufacturing plantImmanuel Kant (22 April 1724 12 February 1804) was an 18th-century German philosopher from the Prussian city of Knigsberg. Kant was the last influential philosopher of modern Europe in the classic sequence of the surmisal of acquaintance during the Enlightenment beginning with thinkers John Locke, George Berkeley, and David Hume.1 A philosopher who lived a life of stringent discipline routine. He took a passionate interest in American and French revolution.Kant has discordant writings to his credit which include frequent Natural History and Theory of the Heavens (1755) in which he writes about the solar system recapitulation of Pure Reason (1781) is about his philosophic work in natural sciences mathematics.Critique of Judgement (1790) wherein he analyzes aesthetics biology.The Fundamental Principles of the Metaphysics of Morals (1785) endeavours to show the foundations of genuine faith.The Cr itique of Practical Reason (1788) investigates implications of im worship for religion.Kants main concern is nature lessonity (starry heavens above and good honor within). He says that genuine honourableity i.e., a morality which is objectively and univers stilly binding requires an a priori foundation. He adds that the universal basis of morality in man must lie in his rational nature, since this al one and only(a) is the same in e rattlingone. and then a moral principle must be such that a man can go away that all men including him should act upon it.Kant uses the test of consistency as the core of fundamental moral practice of law which he calls categorical imperative mood those actions ar in good orderly which conform to principles one can consistently go out to be principles for all men, and those actions argon wrong which argon based upon maxims that a rational creature could non pull up stakes that all men should follow.Through the categorical imperative we can distinguish between right wrong actions. Kant emphasizes that it is non solitary(prenominal) the test but it is also the unconditional directing for behavior. It is binding upon everyone because individually rational man acknowledges his obligation to follow reason. indeed categorical imperative is the only basis for determine our duties. He stresses that reason prescribes barter, and the moral law holds whether or not men actually follow it.In order to have an in-depth understanding of Kants school of thought we need to see how he built up his argument. ab initio Kant carries out a critical analysis of the special Kly accepted groovy things like health, wealth and friendship. He adds that the mentioned things are not good under all circumstances, but only in so furthermost as they are conjoined with something that is unqualified good a good go out. GOOD WILL represents the essay of a rational being to do what he ought to do, rather than to act from inclination or ego -interest. gum olibanum a good will appears to constitute the indispensable condition even of being worthy of rejoicing. Kant elaborates that good will is not good because is achieves good replys. Even if it fails to attain the ends it seeks, it would be good in itself and have a higher worth than the superficial things gained by immoral actions. Kant mentions that reason is a very inefficient instrument for the achievement of enjoyment. He concludes that reason is not in laddered to work happiness, but to produce a good will.Kant further explains the relation between good will debt instrument highlighting that a good will is one which acts for the sake of concern. Indeed, human actions have moral worth only if they are performed from duty. He further says that even action in accordance with duty is not enough only respect for duty, makes an action moral. Kant further differentiates praiseworthy behavior from moral action, he says that altruistic or unselfish actio ns that result from contacts of sociability deserve praise and encouragement but they cannot be classified as possessing moral value. Moral worth of character which is highest of all is not brought out from inclination but from duty.Kant then puts forrader his startle ethical proposition wherein he states that an act must be make from duty in order to have moral worth. Taking this forward the second ethical proposition says that an act from duty derives its moral value not from the results it produces but from the principle by which it is determined. Taking the first born(p) two propositions Kant defines duty as the morally right action is one done fixly out of reverence for the law and its unique and unconditioned worth is derived from this source. Third proposition which is a consequence of the first two expresses duty is the necessity of acting from respect for the law .For Kant the supreme principle or law of morality which the good man must follow is the Categorical Imper ative. Rational beings as far they act rationally will always be guided by ethical principles or maxims which can be adopted by everyone else without generating any contradiction.Kant further distinguishes between categorical imperative and mantic imperative. Kant says that categorical imperative is an unconditional directive that prescribes actions to be done because of the moral worth of the maxim and not for the sake of some consequence that whitethorn result. On the other hand hypothetical imperative is a conditional directive which advises what ought to be done if a wantd goal is to be achieved for spokesperson, One ought to tell the truth as a modality of principle is a categorical imperative, whereas if you want to avoid punishment, you ought to tell the truth is a hypothetical imperative.Kants first explicit formulation of categorical imperative requires an individual to obey a maxim which can, without contradiction, be willed to be a rule for everyone. This mean that th e essence of morality lies in acting on the basis of an neutral principle which is valid for everyone, including oneself. Kant conceives the categorical imperative to be a two-fold test. It requires first, that maxims for moral action be universalized without synthetic contradiction and second, that they be universal directives for action which do not bring the will into disharmony with itself by requiring it to will one thing for itself and another thing for others. In one of Kants formulation of categorical imperative he talks of social implications, he emphasizes that it requires us to treat every human being as an end in himself and never as merely a means to an end. In brief, we should respect all human beings impartially and avoid exploiting anyone. Ends that are ends only because they are desired give us hypothetical imperatives but if there is an end in itself, the imperative to seek it is independent of desire and is therefore a categorical imperative. Kant shows the fund amental identicalness of the first and second formulations of the categorical imperative. Those actions which, on the first formulation, cannot be universalized without contradiction, causa committing suicide or refusing to help the needy, will be seen on the second formulation to be discrepant with the idea of humanity as an end in itself.Having brought to light with logical rigor the implicit pre-suppositions of the common mans awareness of duty and shown it to be a universal categorical imperative, Kant gives eloquent praise to pure moral philosophy and a word of caution to those moralists who would allow reason to be corrupted by a posteriori considerations.References1 Crane Brinton. Enlightenment, Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Vol. 2, p. 519. Macmillan, 1967.2 www.wikipedia.com3 E. Albert, T. Denise, S. Peterfreund Great Traditions in Ethics, 4th Edition, 1980.2. John Stuart MillJohn Stuart Mill was the sharp heir of the utilitarian movement in England. Mill dedicated himsel f to clarifying the teachings of his father, James Mill, and those of Jeremy Bentham, who championed the utilitarian school of thought. John Mill was nurtured and mentored to be an original thinker.Mills study works includeSystem of Logic (1843) which is his philosophical contribution wherein he defends the inductive method of logic, showing that general laws or universal principles must be derived from empirical facts.Principles of Political Economy (1848) wherein he relates the application of functional principles to Economics.Essays on Liberty (1859) and Considerations on illustration G all overnment (1861) are classical statements of his social and political philosophy.Essay Utilitarianism (1861) is his only explicit contribution to ethical motive. memorial and Three Essays on Religion twain of which works were published after his death.John Stuart Mill did not attempt to originate an ethical theory, but rather to defend the ethical theory to which he was born. He modified and went beyond the utilitarian doctrine as it was propounded by his father and Jeremy Bentham. Bentham based his utilitarian philosophy on the principle that the object of morality is the promotion of the greatest happiness of the maximum number of members in the society. He proceeded on the premise that the happiness of any individual consists in a favorable isotropy of pleasures over var.. Consequently, those actions which tend to increase pleasure are called good and those actions which tend to increase pain are called bad. For Bentham The public good ought to be the subject of the legislator General return ought to be the foundation of his reasonings. To know the true up good of the community is what constitutes the science of legislation the art consists in finding the means to realize that good. To go across this social and political ideal, he constructed a hedonistic calculus by means of which pleasures and pains could be measured. In this way, good and bad acts and, co nsequently, good and bad legislation, can be evaluated in terms of such factors as intensity, duration, extent, certainty, propinquity, fecundity purity.2Mill restates the Bentham doctrine. In his restatement, he goes beyond Benthams contention that the subjective deflections among pleasures and pains are quantitative, maintaining that they are also subject to significant qualitative differentiation.Mill accepts in principle Benthams doctrine regarding the basic role of pleasure and pain in morality viz.Individual psychological hedonism according to which the sole motive of an action is an individuals desire for happiness that is for a offset of pleasure over pain. This is primarily a descriptive doctrine since it gives an account of the actual motive of the behaviour.Universal ethical hedonism according to which the greatest happiness of the greatest number ought to be the individuals goal and standard of have. This is a normative theory in that it stipulates what ought to be done. In it is a principle by which actions are evaluated in terms of their consequences irrespective of the nature of the motive. provided there are gaps between Individual psychological hedonism and Universal ethical hedonismIf each individual is move solely by the desire of his own happiness, there is no reason to assume that his actions will at the same time always promote the interests of the societyThe descriptive fact that men do desire their own happiness, does not imply the normative principle that men ought to act in accordance with this desire.In order to fill the gaps and harmonize individual psychological hedonism and universal ethical hedonism Mill takes recourse to the opinion of Sanctions the inducement to action which gives binding army to moral rules.In Mills system of ethics, sanctions are grow in the hedonistic motive, i.e., moral rules are acknowledged and obeyed by virtue of anticipated pleasures or pains There are both external and home(a) sanctions. Ext ernal sanctions are forces of reward and punishment in the universe about us which control mens actions through their fear of pain and propensity for pleasure. But Mill cautions that presence of such external sanctions is not to be taken as true sense of moral obligation. thence net moral sanction must come from within. The force of an internal action derives from the vox populi of pleasure which is experienced when a moral law is obeyed and the feeling of pain which accompanies a violation of it. Thus the greatest happiness principle can be sanctioned from within. Moreover by means of this doctrine of internal sanctions, Mill is enabled to reconcile the psychological theory that everyone desires his own happiness with the moral theory that one ought to act as to serve public good.Looking at Mills work in contingent we see that Mill defends the utilitarian doctrine by identifying misrepresentations and clarification of the principle. He opposes those who fail to associate utilit y with pleasure and pain. Mill then states concisely the doctrine of utility. He says that Greatest contentment Principle, holds that actions are right in proportion as they tend to promote happiness (pleasure and absence of pain), wrong as they tend to produce the reverse of happiness or unhappiness (pain and deprivation of pleasure).He further states that pleasures vary in physical body and degree and some kinds of pleasure are more desirable more valuable than others. Thus bill quality both need to be considered when estimating pleasure. Mill relates that superiority of one kind of pleasure over another is determined by those who have experienced both kinds. Further says that among those who have experienced both prefer the pleasure of higher faculties. Mill further discounts the judgment of those who abandon higher pleasures for lower ones by explaining that they are incapable either inherently or by lack of opportunity of enjoying the higher kind. The only judges are those who have tested the spectrum of pleasures (lower higher pleasures).Mill relates the greatest happiness principle to include the difference between the quantitative and qualitative aspects of pleasure. Mill puts forward the realistic description of happiness and a prompt for the social means of achieving it. This is a clarification to the objections to the utilitarian doctrine.Another objection Mill discounts is the claim that Utilitarian morality is incompatible with acts of personal sacrifice which are so sacred in Christian culture. Thus he concludes that each individuals happiness is equal to that of any other. The greatest happiness principle is not essential as a motive for conduct but is essential as the rule by which conduct is judged and sanctioned. Herein moral evaluation is directed to actions and to the manner in which they affect the general happiness. Having removed the major misconceptions about the principle of utility Mill proposes to investigate its ultimate sanc tion. Mill states that it is our feeling for humanity which provides the ultimate sanction of the principle of utility and this Mill calls the internal sanction. Regardless of whether this inner feeling or internal sanction for mankind is inborn or acquired, Mill argues that it can be a powerful force and a sound basis for utilitarian morality.Mills moving description of the origin and nature of the feeling for humanity may serve as a fitting conclusion to his exposition of the greatest happiness principle.References1 E. Albert, T. Denise, S. Peterfreund Great Traditions in Ethics, 4th Edition 1980.2 www.wikipedia.com(3) fair play EthicsVirtue ethics highlights or stresses on the basic virtues of moral character the main concept being of virtue, practical wisdom and eudaimonia. The founders of virtue ethics are Plato and Aristotle, though roots can be traced back to Greek Philosophy and the Chinese preponderant approach1.Virtue ethics refers to a collection of normative ethical p hilosophy that place an emphasis on being rather that doing. In other words in virtue ethics morality stems from the identity or character of the individual rather than being a reflection of the actions (or consequences thereof) of the individual. There are various debates on virtue ethics however the link that connects all is that Morality comes as a result of intrinsic virtues2VIRTUE PLATOS IDEAPlato followed the Socratic dictum Virtue is Knowledge. Platos thesis was that life of reason is the happiest best. This means that knowledge produces a harmonious man in the sense that when reason governs desires passions, a wholesome match organized personality results. Such a person is a rational man who is the virtuous man and the happy man. For Plato a morally virtuous man is one who is in Rational, Emotional and Biological balance . In Platonic terms a virtuous man is one who is wise, temperate, courageous and just. In a virtuous man desires or passions function harmoniously under the governance of reason.Such a man sets his own inner life is his own master and is at peace with himself. Platos answer to what is a full breeding is that a life of reasoning is the best life. He has written in the Republic It is fail to be unborn than untaught for ignorance is the root of misfortune.3For PlatoA man of knowledge is the virtuous manLife of reason(knowledge ) is the best lifeUltimate knowledge on which moral virtue is based is the knowledge of the Good.By achievement of jurist ,temperance and wisdom the whole soul becomes perfect and nobleVIRTUE ARISTOTLES IDEAAristotles theory is that everyone wants to live the good life, the happy life. The term used for happiness is Eudaimonia. By happiness Aristotle seems to mean well being the fulfillment of our pellucidive functions. Aristotle says that Eudaimonia is the highest good because it is sought for its own sake and nothing else that is justice is sought because it leads to good life. According to Aristotle the best way to achieve happiness (Eudaimonia) was to inculcate and exhibit those qualities that are most productive to live in a society. He states that extremes of character are not good. For Aristotle Virtue lies in the Golden Mean that is the right balance between the two extremes. He has called each of the extremes fault and the mean Virtue4.Exceptions to the RuleNot everything has a meansNo means for murder or theftThus following Aristotles thought every person should develop his own character by inculcating tog of virtue. Thereafter good actions will become a habit e.g. a good person will take good decisions. This goodness shall then ripple to the society coming generations from their elders since virtue is taught by example rather than set of rules. The virtues identified by Aristotle are of 2 typesMoral VirtuesThe habitual choice of actions in accordance with rational principles.Intellectual VirtuesThe contemplation of theoretical truths and the discovery of rational princi ples which ought to control everyday actions.The first set of virtues is developed by habits the second by training and education. According to Aristotle we are not born with virtues that are we are inherently good or bad, we learn by inculcating habits having role models of virtuous people.4Thus according to AristotleA life of reason is the best and most pleasant and this life is also the happiest one.Happiness thus depends on actualization of ones rationality.A virtuous man lives according to reason thus realizing his distinct potentiality.